Abstract

The tension between faith and doubt is an inherent part of the Buddhist teachings and philosophy. This tension is manifested and discussed in the writings of Stephen Batchelor and Sharon Salzberg.

As a doctrine that does not require any belief in rules or dogma, nor does any kind of submission to divine authority, the Buddhist teaching emphasize the freedom of thought and the necessity of doubt, in a way that was probably never seen in the history of religion. According to the Buddha, doubt is necessary, since real freedom is achieved only through the self discovery of truth, and not the consequence of the generosity of a God or divine entity, which rewards man for his belief.

Doubt in Buddhist tradition exists alongside belief, and is defined by its relativity to it. In ancient and modern Buddhist texts, discussed in this thesis, the tension between faith and doubt is analyzed in various ways. In some texts, doubt is considered contradictive to faith, and defined as a hindrance in the believer's path. Other texts regard doubt as a teacher, who shows the practitioner the delusional nature of his mind. Doubt can also be a method of developing the practitioner's ability to think independently, and examine ideas on his own. Without the doubt, says the Buddhist tradition, faith would be lacking the depth and inner inquiry, essential for developing awareness. Thus, faith and doubt are woven together, essentially supporting each other.

This thesis examines the tension between faith and doubt in Buddhist tradition, as it is seen through the eyes of two contemporary Buddhist writers and teachers, Stephen Batchelor and Sharon Salzberg, a man and a woman, a Christian and a Jew, a Scotish and an American. Both began their spiritual journey at an early age, in South East Asia, and both currently teach in the West. Bachelor is characterized as an intellectual and critique writer. He was educated in existential philosophy as well as in Tibetan Buddhism, where he was ordained as a monk. He also practiced and studied Zen.

Salzberg was raised in the Theravada tradition, studied with various teachers, and currently teaches the Dharma to students in the USA.  

This thesis attempts to show the unique way in which each one of the writers has developed his ideas. Batchelor, who coined the term "Agnostic Buddhism", claims that Buddhism in its essence is not another belief system, but rather a course of action, a method, something "to do" in order to help one find a cure for his existential suffering, or "dukkha" as defined by the Buddha. Batchelor sees faith as the spiritual confidence that enables the practitioner to begin his journey of self - inquiry, and develop spiritually.

Sharon Salzberg developed her ideas mostly as a result of the tremendous mental suffering she underwent since childhood. Her curiosity towards Buddhism was first derived from her quest to end her pain, loneliness and despair. Her interpretation of the concept of faith is based on the mental and emotional strength Buddhism gave her.

In order to understand the teachings of these two contemporary writers, who base their ideas on traditional Buddhist concepts; this thesis will first introduce and examine the different ways in which the Buddhist tradition deals with the concepts of faith and doubt, and the tension between them.

The first two chapters, will discuss the concept of faith (saddha- Pali, s̀raddha - Sanskrit), and doubt (vicikiccha) in the Buddhist tradition. Traditional and modern definitions will be analyzed and compared. The difference between the Theravadan and Zen perspective will be elaborated particularly, as these traditions are the foundations for Bathcelor's and Salzberg's study and practice.

The first chapter will discuss the concept of faith in Buddhism. Faith is an extensively used term in many Buddhist schools of teachings, at different times and places around the world.

Comprehending the concept of faith is essential for understanding the Buddhist doctrine as a whole. Being based on freedom of thought, the Buddhist doctrine liberates its believers from the need or obligation to believe, and encourages them to check the teachings and ideas through their personal experience.

This chapter will describe faith as one of the five spiritual faculties, and will discuss its union with wisdom. This union is emphasized in Buddhism as an important part of the teachings and their implementation. The concept of self inquiry, as an essential component of the dharma, will also be discussed and elaborated, by showing how Batchelor and Salzberg based their ideas on this concept, in the context of faith and doubt.

The last part of the first chapter will discuss the basic and central beliefs in Buddhist tradition. These include the "four noble truths", a basic outline for the existential frame of human life, and the "three jewels", the religious and cultural frame of reference and confidence.

The second chapter will discuss the concept of doubt. This chapter will examine and demonstrate the different faces of doubt as a mental state of insecurity, perplexity and confusion, as well as a unique idea of the Buddha. He encouraged his students to doubt and examine as a method of inquiry, which eventually strengthens their self- confidence, and their faith in the Buddha and in his teachings.

Ancient Buddhism is a kind of map that could be interpreted in several ways. Though based on the same writings of the Buddha, different traditions, such as Theravada and Zen, dealt with doubt in different ways, contradicting at times.

In this chapter, the Theravadan understanding of doubt will be discussed, as a hindrance on the way to enlightenment, as well as a teacher that shows the student the nature of the mind, and its delusions.

In addition, the Zen approach to doubt will be described as one of the "Three Pillares of Practice" and a transformative power that enables for deep inquiry into the nature of life.

In the original Buddhist writings, as the "Kalama Sutra", which will be discussed in this chapter, lays the key to different ways of understanding the concept of doubt. The Buddhist call for genuine self-inquiry, and its opposition to the tempting, yet limiting external dogmas, is in fact a demand to free the mind of its restrictions, which is common to all Buddhist schools of thought, and is demonstrated in various ways throughout their writings.

The "Heart Sutra", will end the second chapter. The sutra discards any ideas and notions, traditionally considered important, since the tradition itself indicates the risk in attachment to theories, ideals and dogmas, including the Buddhist ones. In this chapter it will be stated, that although the sutra is considered a "radical doubt" essay, it actually represents the "middle way" between faith and doubt. After taking all notions and concepts and showing them as empty, it leads to great faith, and awakening. Only the person, who has the courage to doubt so deeply, can develop a great and honest faith.

Chapters three and four will deal with the writings of Batchelor and Salzberg, as the primary source of analysis. These two chapters will discuss their interpretation of the tension between faith and doubt, through the study and investigation of their writings.

The third chapter will discuss the philosophical project of Stephen Batchelor, who claims that "it needs faith to doubt". He emphasizes that once we find something to believe in, it is easy to forget our original questions. Instead of acquiescing to the security of belief, he recommends intensifying the sense of doubt.

The chapter will open with a biographic overview, and examine how Batchelor's spiritual journey influenced his ideas. Then, it will present Bachelor's agnostic approach to Buddhism, as introduced in his book "Buddhism without Beliefs", while examining the notion of the term agnosticism and its sources.

As an outcome of Bathelor's agnostic approach, this chapter will discuss the way he interpreted the traditional Buddhist beliefs such as karma, reincarnation and enlightenment, in a way that doesn’t demand any belief in the metaphysical. Batchelor's understanding of the tension between faith and doubt is based on his view of doubt as a form of existential crisis. In his book "Alone with Others" he presents the existential essence of Buddhism as a doctrine developed from the human encounter with suffering and existential doubt. For Batchelor, these essential questions are as old as mankind.  

This chapter will also discuss the way Batchelor, in his book "The Faith to doubt", presents the role of doubt in spiritual practice. According to Bachelor, doubt is not a hindrance disturbing the practitioner, but rather a call for deepening the study and self-inquiry. His ideas are based on the Zen approach, which views doubt as a method of practice meant to intensify the sense of not knowing that consequently urges the student to doubt the concepts he is familiar with, that provide false confidence.

The fourth chapter will introduced the unique ideas of Sharon Salzberg, who perceives faith as spiritual confidence. The chapter will discuss Salzberg's book "Faith", where she offers discerning wisdom on understanding faith as a healing quality, a refuge that can be nurtured in each of us to sooth life's deepest wounds.

Faith, according to Salzberg, is neither blind nor ignorant, but rather firmly grounded in intelligence, common sense, and most important, our own experience.  Salzberg provides us with a vision of faith, as a cure for human despair, and as an inner feeling of confidence.

This chapter will examine how Salzberg's life story, paved with loss and illness, has shaped her ideas. She describes the tension between faith and doubt as the tension between spiritual confidence and despair. Salzberg, who was raised in the Theravada tradition, relates to doubt through two perspectives: 1) A hindrance or obstacle to practice; 2) Self-inquiry, which advances spiritual growth.

Salzberg describes how the process of dealing with doubt, as a sincere, critical way of questioning, along with deep trust in our own right and ability to discern the truth, leads to what is known in Buddhism as 'skillful doubt'.

The core of Salzberg's thinking is the view of faith as a cure for suffering and despair. This view emphasizes the emotional aspect of doubt as an outcome of suffering and fear, and the strengthening power of faith.

The chapter will end with a practical vision developed by Salzberg, an outcome of the Buddhist understanding that we are not separate entities in this world. According to this view, we carry the ability to influence the well being of all sentient beings, by cultivating love and compassion towards our selves and others. 'Metta' meditation, which Salzberg has developed from the Buddhist tradition, will be discussed as an outcome of faith and compassion, as what she calls "faith in action".

The fifth and last chapter is the Discussion. It will deal with the ways in which Salzberg and Batchelor, two contemporary writers and teachers, interpret and evaluate the tension between faith and doubt, and whether there are meeting points in their views.

This chapter will describe Salzberg and Batchelor's spiritual journeys, the uniqueness of each individual quest, and the ideas and insights they developed as an outcome of it. The chapter will examine the biographical, emotional and theoretical factors that shaped the concepts of the two writers.

The discussion will be based on the first two chapters, which dealt with the tension between faith and doubt in Buddhism, combined with the third and fourth chapters that dealt with the modern way to contemplate and comprehend this tension, presented by Batchelor and Salzberg.

In this chapter it will be suggested that Batchelor and Salzberg's approaches represent two aspects of the Buddha: Avalokiteshvara, the Buddha of compassion, and Manjushri, the Buddha of wisdom. The discussion will show how ancient Buddhism contains both elements of wisdom and inquiry, together with elements of heart and emotion. Batchelor and Salzberg walk these two paths, which are not separated, and develop them in contemporary terms.

The next part of the discussion will deal with the "cultural translation" of the two writers, which represents a dialogue of vicinity and distance from the Buddhist tradition. It will examine the Buddhist terms in western language as presented by the two writers, and will discuss western influences, particularly existentialism and Jungian psychology incorporated into Bachelor's writings, and the "new age" movement into Salzberg's. In this part, the western secular aspect of their writings, and the psychological-philosophical interpretation of the Dharma, will be discussed and demonstrated, especially through their unique view of the Buddha and his life story.

Batchelor and Salzberg's role as "cultural translators" will be analyzed, together with their "loyalty" to the old "spirit" of Buddhism, and an emphasis on their understanding of the tension between faith and doubt in it. In addition, this part will discuss the criticism of the work of both writers.

The last part of the discussion will describe Batchelor and Salzberg's ideas on the issue of faith and doubt in the Buddhist wider context. It'll compare the different emphasis each writer put on this topic, and the way they each developed their ideas from the traditions they evolved from.

Batchelor writes about "Buddhism without beliefs", while Salzberg writes about "faith"; apparently contradicting views, but are they?

Batchelor claims that the institutionalization of Buddhism and the emphasis on beliefs cause a drift away from authentic personal inquiry, as well as an attachment to the vertical dimension of "having", which is characterized by acquiring religious terms without an inner quest. Batchelor sees the dharma not as something to believe in, but as something to do, a method, a way one needs to live by.

Salzberg describes the therapeutic power of faith as a remedy for pain and despair. She defines faith as trust, an inner quality of the heart, which enables devotion to the spiritual way.

Batchelor and Salzberg both acknowledge that faith as spiritual confidence comes from within, and not from an external source. They both deny belief as a dogma, and emphasize its illusionary nature that gives false confidence, and disturbs one from reaching the "right view" that leads to wisdom.

Both writers agree that uncompromising inner inquiry, personal experience, and the courage to ask, wander and doubt, are the most important components in the spiritual practice. And thus, although arriving from different points of view and traditions, Batchelor and Salzberg meet at this critical junction. Their meeting point reflects a deep Buddhist truth that only a personal realization of the Dharma, could lead the practitioner to faith and awakening, and only uncompromising inquiry is the key to such development.

This thesis does not pretend to solve the tension between faith and doubt in Buddhism. Rather, it intends to show the way this tension is dealt with in different traditions, and by two leading contemporary Buddhist thinkers. It seems that the different interpretations to this tension deepen and broaden our understanding of its nature. However, these interpretations should not free us from doubts, as we might lose the dharmic opportunity for further contemplation. Thus, this thesis leaves the tension between faith and doubt alive, breathing, as a form of existence, as a Buddhist living practice.